king

Click here to view graphically

Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:

(Click or tap here to see details)

  • Piro: “a great one”
  • Highland Totonac: “the big boss”
  • Huichol: “the one who commanded” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Ekari: “the one who holds the country” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Una: weik sienyi: “big headman” (source: Kroneman 2004, p. 407)
  • Pass Valley Yali: “Big Man” (source: Daud Soesilo)
  • Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
  • Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
  • Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))

Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo was determined:

“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”

(Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. )

Translation commentary on Isaiah 14:9

Drama deepens as the audience is led to the world of the dead where Babylonia’s leader has gone. Other former world leaders are there to greet the Babylonian king as he enters. Translators may add a paragraph break (so Good News Translation) or a stanza break (so Contemporary English Version, Bible en français courant, Nouvelle Bible Segond) here since this verse makes a dramatic shift from the world of the living to the place of the dead.

Sheol beneath is stirred up to meet you when you come: According to the traditional Hebrew world-view, Sheol is one of the names of the “underworld” to which all the dead go (see the comments on 5.14). It is also called “the Pit” in verses 15 and 19. Sheol is personified here as someone who gets ready to welcome the arrival of Babylonia’s dead emperor. Is stirred up renders an active verb in Hebrew. It comes from the same root as “turmoil” in verse 3. In this context it means “is excited.” Contemporary English Version expresses this sense by rendering these lines as “The world of the dead eagerly waits for you.” This underlines the mocking tone of the song. As in the previous verse, the pronoun you is singular in Hebrew and refers to the Babylonian king, which Good News Translation makes explicit.

It rouses the shades to greet you: The pronoun it refers to Sheol. Sheol stirs up the shades (rephaʾim in Hebrew). Shades are mentioned in parallel with “the dead” in Psa 88.10; Isa 26.14, 19. However, here they are dead kings rather than dead people generally. This notion is found in the Ugaritic texts and was probably well known to the Israelites and their ancient neighbors. Sheol is so excited that it wakes up the dead kings to arrange a welcome for their Babylonian colleague. Good News Translation and New Jerusalem Bible render shades as “ghosts,” but this could be misleading in cultures where such a term has negative overtones, associated with fear. The Hebrew term here does not have such associations. Contemporary English Version has “spirits,” a term that needs to be treated with caution in some cultures as well. Bible en français courant and Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch have “shadows,” which is a synonym of shades in English.

All who were leaders of the earth further defines the shades, stating that they were former leaders in the world. The Hebrew word rendered leaders is literally “rams” or “he-goats.” Here it is a condescending figure for leaders.

It raises from their thrones all who were kings of the nations is parallel to the previous two lines. After Sheol awakens the deceased kings, it makes them stand up from their thrones to welcome the new arrival. For thrones see the comments on 6.1. The phrase kings of the nations is repeated in verse 18 as an important link between the two parts of the poem. This could be a reference to the kings that were defeated and killed by the Babylonians during their conquests. Once more the “rise up – go down” theme occurs. Leaders of nations brought low by Babylonia now rise up to welcome its former king.

The imaginative description here can be used freely in poetry. It will be a challenge to translate this highly poetic verse. Some readers may find the imagery difficult to understand, but translators should try to preserve the picture, respecting its poetic nature. A footnote could be added, for example, “According to ancient beliefs, the dead stayed in a world deep under the ground. Here it says that world awakens all the dead kings that are there, so that they prepare to receive the [dead] king of Babylonia who is on his way.”

Some translation suggestions for this verse are:

• Sheol below is excited to welcome you. It awakens all the dead who had been leaders on earth; it makes all those who were kings arise from their thrones to welcome you.

• The world of the dead down below awaits your arrival with great excitement. It awakes the dead who were leaders on earth; it makes those who were kings of nations get off their thrones to greet you.

Quoted with permission from Ogden, Graham S. and Sterk, Jan. A Handbook on Isaiah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2011. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .