The Greek and Hebrew terms that are translated as “hypocrite” in English typically have a counterpart in most languages. According to Bratcher / Nida (1961, p. 225), they can be categorized into the following categories:
those which employ some concept of “two” or “double”
those which make use of some expression of “mouth” or “speaking”
those which are based upon some special cultural feature
those which employ a non-metaphorical phrase
Following is a list of (back-) translations from some languages:
Mazahua: “have a swollen mouth” (from too much speaking)
Tai Dam: “have a straight mouth and a crooked heart”
Kongo: “the bitterness of white” (an idiom based on the fact that white-wash looks nice but tastes bitter)
Malagasy: “spread a clean carpet” (an expression used in Madagascar to describe one who covers up the dirt of an unswept floor just before the arrival of guests)
Zanaki: “those who make themselves out to be good”
Tetelcingo Nahuatl: “those who deceive” (this and all examples above acc. to Bratcher / Nida 1961, p. 225)
Kafa: “one who makes as if his belly is clean” (source: Loren Bliese)
Bauzi: “good on top person” (source: David Briley in Kroneman (2004), p. 502)
Tibetan: kha chos pa (ཁ་ཆོས་པ།), lit. “mouth + religion + person” (used for instance in Matt. 7:5) or sgyu zog can (སྒྱུ་ཟོག་ཅན།), lit. “deception + fraud + person” (used for instance in Matt. 24:51) (source: gSungrab website )
Low German: “actor in a comedy” (translation by Johannes Jessen, publ. 1933, republ. 2006)
Lélé: ne kub so or “make mouth two” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
The English version of Sarah Ruden (2021) uses “play-actor.” She explains (p. li): “A hupokrites is fundamentally an actor. The word has deep negativity in the Gospels on two counts: professional actors were not respectable people in the ancient world, and traditional Judaism did not countenance any kind of playacting. I write ‘play-actor’ throughout.”
The name that is transliterated as “Isaiah” in English is translated in Finnish Sign Language with the signs signifying “save + prophet” (referring to Genesis 2:21). (Source: Tarja Sandholm)
Following is a Russian Orthodox icon of Isaiah from the 18th century (found in the Transfiguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia). The text in the scrollis from Isaiah 2:2: “In the last days […] shall be established.”
Orthodox Icons are not drawings or creations of imagination. They are in fact writings of things not of this world. Icons can represent our Lord Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the Saints. They can also represent the Holy Trinity, Angels, the Heavenly hosts, and even events. Orthodox icons, unlike Western pictures, change the perspective and form of the image so that it is not naturalistic. This is done so that we can look beyond appearances of the world, and instead look to the spiritual truth of the holy person or event. (Source )
Following are a number of back-translations of Mark 7:6:
Uma: “Yesus said: ‘You, your following of God is just on the outside! How true the words that the prophet Yesaya wrote long ago that foretell you, like this their sound: God said: ‘Those people honor me just with their lips, their hearts are far from me.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
Yakan: “Isa answered, he said, ‘You are pretending to follow God but you are not. The word of God is really true which Nabi Isaya wrote about you. There God says, ‘These people honor (lit. make great) me with their mouth, but their livers do not follow/obey me.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
Western Bukidnon Manobo: “And Jesus answered, he said, ‘You whose faith in God is just deceit, very true is the word of God written by the ancient prophet Isaiah. He prophesied about you for he said, ‘These people,’ says God, ‘they say that they respect me. But there is no faith that has come into their breaths.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
Kankanaey: “Jesus answered and said, ‘This that God said that Isaias prophesied about you is true which says, ‘These people, they are praising/honoring me with their words, but their mind/thoughts are far from me.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
Tagbanwa: “Jesus replied, ‘Really true is what was told by Isaias, that prophet of the past concerning you. You are only pretending to believe-in/obey God, like what he wrote which is the word of God, saying, ‘As for the serving and worshipping of me by these people, it’s only superficial (lit. on their beaks), their having no true holding-dear of me.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
Like many languages (but unlike Greek or Hebrew or English), Tuvan uses a formal vs. informal 2nd person pronoun (a familiar vs. a respectful “you”). Unlike other languages that have this feature, however, the translators of the Tuvan Bible have attempted to be very consistent in using the different forms of address in every case a 2nd person pronoun has to be used in the translation of the biblical text.
As Voinov shows in Pronominal Theology in Translating the Gospels (in: The Bible Translator 2002, p. 210ff.), the choice to use either of the pronouns many times involved theological judgment. While the formal pronoun can signal personal distance or a social/power distance between the speaker and addressee, the informal pronoun can indicate familiarity or social/power equality between speaker and addressee.
Here, Jesus is addressing religious leaders with the formal pronoun, showing respect. Compare that with the typical address with the informal pronoun of the religious leaders.
The only two exceptions to this are Luke 7:40/43 and 10:26 where Jesus uses the informal pronoun as a response to the sycophantic use of the formal pronoun by the religious leaders (see formal pronoun: religious leaders addressing Jesus).
In most Dutch translations, the same distinctions are made, with the exception of Luke 10:26 where Jesus is using the formal pronoun. In Afrikaans and Western Frisian the informal pronoun is used throughout.
prophēteuō (14.65) ‘prophesy’: here used in the sense of ‘predict,’ ‘foretell.’
hupokritōn (only here in Mark) ‘hypocrites,’ ‘dissemblers’: an extension of the original meaning ‘stage actors.’
hōs gegraptai (cf. 1.2) ‘as it stands written.’ The passage quoted is from Isaiah 29.13, the Septuagint version (which differs significantly from the Hebrew text).
laos (14.2) ‘people’: here in the special sense of the people of God, Israel.
tois cheilesin me tima ‘with the lips they honor me.’
cheilos (only here in Mark) ‘lip’: by which outward profession is meant, in contrast with the inward thoughts and purposes of the ‘heart.’
timaō (7.10; 10.19) ‘honor,’ ‘revere.’
hē de kardia autōn porrō apechei ap’ emou ‘but their heart is far removed from me.’
kardia (cf. 2.6) ‘heart’ as the center of intellectual activity.
porrō (only here in Mark) adverb ‘far away,’ ‘distant from.’
apechō (14.41) here ‘to be away,’ ‘to be distant.’
matēn de sebontai me ‘in vain do they worship me.’
matēn (only here in Mark) adverb ‘in vain,’ ‘to no purpose,’ ‘to no end.’
sebomai (only here in Mark) ‘worship (as God).’
didaskontes didaskalias entalmata anthrōpōn ‘teaching as (divine) teachings the precepts of men.’
didaskalia (only here in Mark) in the passive sense of ‘teaching,’ ‘instruction.’
entalma (only here in Mark) ‘precept,’ ‘ordinance.’
Translation:
For prophesy see prophet, 1.2. But in this context prophesy may need to be taken in quite a special sense, e.g. ‘long ago speak the truth about’ or ‘to declare God’s words about’ (if prophesy is to be understood in the sense of speaking to the people on behalf of God).
You hypocrites is an appositional expression, rendered in some languages as ‘about you; and you are hypocrites’; ‘about you, as hypocrites,’ or ‘about the hypocrites that you are.’
Hypocrites is one of those metaphorically fascinating terms which exhibits about as wide a variety of different possibilities as exist for any term. Such people exist in all societies and there seems to be no lack of ways in which these persons may be described. However, the different expressions may be classified principally into (1) those which employ some concept of ‘two’ or ‘double,’ e.g. ‘two faced’ (Highland Totonac, Huautla Mazatec, Lacandon, Tepeuxila Cuicatec, Highland Puebla Nahuatl), ‘two hearts’ (Tzeltal, Chol), ‘two mouths’ (Central Pame), ‘two heads’ (San Miguel El Grande Mixtec), ‘two sides’ (Kekchi), ‘double (or ‘forked’) tongue’ (Shipibo-Conibo), ‘double talk’ (Eastern Highland Otomi); (2) those which make use of some expression of ‘mouth’ or ‘speaking’ e.g. ‘to talk false’ (Huehuetla Tepehua), ‘to lie-act’ (Copainalá Zoque), ‘to lie’ (Kituba, Amganad Ifugao, Trukese), ‘someone whose lips are fair’ (i.e. gracious) (Toraja-Sa’dan), ‘to have a sweet mouth’ (Mossi ), ‘to have a swollen mouth,’ from too much speaking (Central Mazahua), and ‘to have a straight mouth and a crooked heart’ (Tai Dam); (3) those which are based upon some special cultural feature, e.g. ‘the bitterness of white’ an idiom based on the fact that white-wash looks nice but tastes bitter (Kongo), ‘to spread a clean carpet,’ an expression used in Madagascar to describe one who covers up the dirt of an unswept floor just before the arrival of guests (Malagasy), and ‘to be a priest-heron,’ based on a fable of a heron who deceived fish into thinking that he was their protector, while actually he was devouring them (Balinese); and (4) those which employ a non-metaphorical phrase, e.g. ‘those who make themselves out to be good’ (Zanaki) and ‘those who deceive’ (Tetelcingo Nahuatl).
As it is written may be in the active form ‘as Isaiah wrote.’ Some languages, however, may employ ‘as the words are written.’
Honors is here often translated as ‘praises,’ e.g. ‘say my name’ (Huehuetla Tepehua), ‘make me great’ (Highland Totonac), ‘good what is said about me’ (Tzeltal), ‘speak well of me’ (Western Highland Purepecha), ‘lift up my name’ (San Blas Kuna, Kpelle).
In English we may use lips as a figurative substitute for ‘voice’ or ‘speech.’ However, in other languages this may not be meaningful. For example, ‘mouth’ is required in Huautla Mazatec and South Bolivian Quechua, ‘words’ (literally, ‘they love me with words’) is used in Chol, and ‘so they say’ is the equivalent in Tzeltal.
As in so many instances heart may not be rendered literally in many translations. For example, in Sayula Popoluca the heart is only ‘a blood bowl,’ and has absolutely no metaphorical significance or usage. One must use in this type of context a borrowing from Spanish anima, which is the well-recognized and often-used term for the focus of the personality.
Their heart is far from me is essentially a figurative expression, and may require considerable adaptations: (1) modifications in the word for heart, e.g. liver, abdomen, stomach (see 2.6), (2) shifts from singular to plural, i.e. ‘their hearts are…,’ since each person has a heart, and (3) alteration of the perspective, e.g. ‘I have not arrived in their hearts’ (Tzeltal).
Terms for worship are quite involved. Words for ‘worship’ can usually be classified under the following divisions: (1) those based on the physical activity involved in the position assumed in worship, e.g. ‘to prostrate oneself before’ (Javanese), ‘to kneel and bow the head’ (Malay), ‘to kneel before’ (Kaqchikel), ‘to drop oneself beneath God’s foot’ (Loma (Liberia)), ‘to cut oneself down before’ (Ngäbere), ‘to wag the tail before God,’ using a verb which with an animal subject means ‘to wag the tail,’ but with a human subject means ‘to worship’ (Tepeuxila Cuicatec), ‘to join to’ (Tzotzil), (2) those which incorporate some element of ‘speaking’ or ‘declaring,’ e.g. ‘to raise up a blessing to God’ (Kpelle), ‘to praise as your God’ (Kekchi), ‘to say one is important’ (Cashibo-Cacataibo), and (3) those which specify some type of mental activity (whether or not later expressed in words), e.g. ‘to think of God with the heart’ (San Blas Kuna), ‘to have one’s heart go out to God’ (Rincon Zapotec), and ‘to holy-remember’ (Tabasco Chontal).
In vain is a phrase giving rise to a number of problems, since it so frequently requires a complete descriptive phrase or clause in order to convey a corresponding meaning, e.g. ‘say I am important, but they do not believe it’ (Cashibo-Cacataibo), ‘has no meaning when they praise me’ (Kekchi), ‘uselessly’ (Toraja-Sa’dan, Pamona), ‘uselessly they remember’ (Copainalá Zoque), ‘their religion is their mouth’ (Farefare), ‘their worship has no meaning’ (Southern Subanen), ‘they say they love me, but this means nothing’ (Tzotzil), ‘they worship me but they do not mean what they say’ (Southern Bobo Madaré), ‘it is of no value that they honor me’ (Central Mazahua), and ‘their thinking is not in their hearts’ (San Blas Kuna).
Teaching as doctrines the precepts of men must often be recast since doctrines and precepts more often than not correspond to verb expressions, not nouns. When this modification occurs certain expansions are required in order to identify the participants and the relationships between the processes, e.g. ‘teach what men say as though it were what God has said’ (San Mateo del Mar Huave), ‘teach men’s commandments as true teachings,’ in which ‘true teachings’ is the regular expression for doctrines (Tzeltal), ‘teach as God’s words what men have said’ (Southern Bobo Madaré), ‘teach rules, which are merely the regulations of men’ (Pamona), ‘teach what men have commanded as though it is true’ (Amganad Ifugao), and ‘teach men’s commands as though they were the very words of God’ (Eastern Highland Otomi).
Quoted with permission from Bratcher, Robert G. and Nida, Eugene A. A Handbook on the Gospel of Mark. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1961. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
Leave a Reply
You must be logged in to post a comment.