tribe

The Greek and Hebrew that is translated as “tribe” in English when referring to the “12 tribes of Israel” is translated in some East African languages, including Taita and Pökoot, with the equivalent of “clan” instead.

Aloo Mojola explains (in The Bible Translator 1989, p. 208ff. ) (click or tap here to see the rest of this insight):

“A number of Bible translation teams in East Africa have been baffled and intrigued by the use of the term ‘tribe’ in the English translations of the Bible. The usage employed in these translations does not reflect any of the popular meanings associated with the term ‘tribe’ in present-day English. Neither does it reflect popular conceptions of the meaning of this term in East Africa or in other parts of Africa and elsewhere. This raises the question: is the term tribe the best translation of the Hebrew terms shebeth and matteh or the Greek term phyle? What is a tribe anyway? Are the twelve tribes of Israel tribes in the sense this term is currently understood? How can this term be translated in East African languages?

“It is easy to see that there is no consistent definition of the term tribe which applies exclusively and consistently to the communities to which it is currently applied. Why, for example, are the Somali or the Baganda called a tribe, but not the Irish or the Italians? Why do the Yoruba or Hausa qualify, but not the Portuguese or the Russians? Why the Bakongo and the Oromo, but not the Germans or the Scots? Why the Eritreans, but not the French or Dutch-speaking Belgians? Why the Zulu or the Xhosa, but not the South African Boers (Afrikaners) or the South African English? The reason for the current prejudices, it would seem, has nothing to do with language, physical type, common territory, common cultural values, type of political and social organization or even population size. Ingrained prejudices and preconceived ideas about so-called “primitive” peoples have everything to do with it.

“The term ‘tribe’ is used to refer to a universal and world-wide phenomenon of ethnic identification which may draw on any of the following bases: identification in terms of one’s first or dominant language of communication (linguistic), in terms of one’s place of origin (regional), in terms of one’s presumed racial, biological or genetic type (racial), or in terms of one’s ideological or political commitments (ideological), and so on. Communities may choose one or more of these bases as criteria for membership. Any of these may change over time. Moreover forms of ethnic identification are dynamic or in a state of flux, changing in response to new environments and circumstances. Essentially forms of ethnic association reflect a people’s struggle for survival through adaptation to changing times. This is inextricably intertwined with the production and distribution of vital resources, goods and services as well as the distribution of power, class and status in society.

“At the base of any ethnic group is the nuclear family which expands to include the extended family. The extended family consists of more than two families related vertically and horizontally: parents and their offspring, cousins, uncles, aunts, nephews, and others, extending to more than two generations. A lineage is usually a larger group than an extended family. It includes a number of such families who trace descent through the male or female line to a common ancestor. A clan may be equivalent to or larger than a lineage. Where it is larger than a lineage, it brings together several lineages which may or may not know the precise nature of their relationships, but which nevertheless claim descent from a common ancestor. A clan is best thought of as a kind of sub-ethnic unit whose members have some unifying symbol such as totem, label, or myth. In most cases the clan is used to determine correct marriage lines, but this is not universally so. Above the clan is the ethnic group, usually referred to inconsistently as the tribe. Members of an ethnic group share feelings of belonging to a common group. The basis of ethnic identity is not always derived from a common descent, real or fictional; it may draw on any of the bases mentioned above.

“The Israelites identified themselves as one people sharing a common descent, a common religious and cultural heritage, a common language and history. There is no doubt that they constitute what would nowadays be called an ethnic group, or by some people a tribe. The twelve subunits of the Israelite ethnic group or tribe, (Hebrew shebeth or matteh, or Greek phyle) are clearly equivalent to clans. In fact this is what seems to make sense to most African Bible translators in the light of their understanding of these terms and the biblical account. Referring to a shebeth as a tribe or an ethnic group and to Israel as a collection of twelve tribes creates unnecessary confusion. Translating each of the terms shebeth, matteh, and phyle as clan seems to solve this problem and to be consistent with current usage in African languages.”

zeal, zealous

The Greek, Latin and Hebrew that is often translated in English as “zeal” or “zealous” is translated in Moken as “great love” (“my zeal” — cewui lak tho: “my great love.”) (Source: Gam Seng Shae)

In Ixcatlán Mazatec it is likewise translated as “love, commitment, enthusiasm” (not jealousy). (Source: Robert Bascom)

In Khasi is is translated with shitrhem which conveys the “idea of loving or devoted enthusiasm.” (Source: B. J. Syiemlieh)

Pharisee

The Greek that is a transliteration of the Hebrew Pərūšīm and is typically transliterated into English as “Pharisee” is transliterated in Mandarin Chinese as Fǎlìsài (法利賽 / 法利赛) (Protestant) or Fǎlìsāi (法利塞) (Catholic). In Chinese, transliterations can typically be done with a great number of different and identical-sounding characters. Often the meaning of the characters are not relevant, unless they are chosen carefully as in these cases. The Protestant Fǎlìsài can mean something like “Competition for the profit of the law” and the Catholic Fǎlìsāi “Stuffed by/with the profit of the law.” (Source: Zetzsche 1996, p. 51)

In Finnish Sign Language it is translated with the sign signifying “prayer shawl”. (Source: Tarja Sandholm)


“Pharisee” in Finnish Sign Language (source )

In British Sign Language it is translated with a sign that depicts “pointing out the law.” (Source: Anna Smith)


“Pharisee” in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)

In French Sign Language it is translated with a sign that depicts the box of the phylacteries attached to the forehead:


“Pharisees” in French Sign Language (source: La Bible en langue des signes française )

Scot McKnight (in The Second Testament, publ. 2023) translates it into English as Observant. He explains (p. 302): “Pharisee has become a public, universal pejorative term for a hypocrite. Pharisees were observant of the interpretation of the Covenant Code called the ‘tradition of the elders.’ They conformed their behaviors to the interpretation. Among the various groups of Jews at the time of Jesus, they were perhaps closest to Jesus in their overall concern to make a radical commitment to the will of God (as they understood it).”

See also Nicodemus.

circumcise, circumcision

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The Hebrew and Greek terms that are translated as “circumcise” or “circumcision” in English (originally meaning of English term: “to cut around”) are (back-) translated in various ways:

  • Chimborazo Highland Quichua: “cut the flesh”
  • San Miguel El Grande Mixtec, Navajo: “cut around”
  • Javanese: “clip-away”
  • Uab Meto: “pinch and cut” (usually shortened to “cut”)
  • North Alaskan Inupiatun, Western Highland Purepecha: “put the mark”
  • Tetelcingo Nahuatl: “put the mark in the body showing that they belong to God” (or: “that they have a covenant with God”)
  • Indonesian: disunat — “undergo sunat” (sunat is derived from Arabic “sunnah (سنة)” — “(religious) way (of life)”)
  • Ekari: “cut the end of the member for which one fears shame” (in Gen. 17:10) (but typically: “the cutting custom”) (source for this and above: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Hiri Motu: “cut the skin” (source: Deibler / Taylor 1977, p. 1079)
  • Garifuna: “cut off part of that which covers where one urinates”
  • Bribri: “cut the soft” (source for this and the one above: Ronald Ross)
  • Amele: deweg cagu qoc — “cut the body” (source: John Roberts)
  • Eastern Highland Otomi: “cut the flesh of the sons like Moses taught” (source: Ronald D. Olson in Notes on Translation January, 1968, p. 15ff.)
  • Newari: “put the sign in one’s body” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Central Mazahua: “sign in his flesh”
  • Hopi: “being cut in a circle in his body” (source for this and above: Waterhouse / Parrott in Notes on Translation October 1967, p. 1ff.)
  • Mandarin Chinese: gēlǐ (割礼 / 割禮) or “rite of cutting” (Protestant); gēsǔn (割损 / 割損) or “cut + loss” (Catholic) (Source: Zetzsche)
  • Tibetan: mdun lpags gcod (མདུན་​ལྤགས་​གཅོད།), lit. “fore + skin + cut” (source: gSungrab website )
  • Kutu: “enter the cloth (=undergarments)” (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)

complete verse (Philippians 3:5)

Following are a number of back-translations of Philippians 3:5:

  • Uma: “I was circumcised at the age of eight days according to the Law of Musa. I am a real Yahudi person, a descendant of the Israel people, from the family of Benyamin. Before I believed in the Lord Yesus, I followed the Law of Musa according to the teaching of the Parisi people.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “Because I, when I was only eight days on the floor (idiom for having been born) I was already circumcised according to the Yahudi custom. My parents were descendants of Benjamin one of the children of our (excl.) forefather Isra’il. I am really a pure Yahudi. Concerning the law written by Musa, I really followed/obeyed it because I am a Pariseo, the ones who defend/take-the-side-of the law.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “For eight days after I was born I was circumcised; my parents, they were descendants of Benjamin, who was the son of our ancestor Israel. I was a Jew through and through. I thoroughly observed the Law left behind by Moses, for I was a Pharisee.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Because listen to this: I was circumcised on my eighth day, for I was born a Judio, a descendant of Benjamin who was a child of Israel. I am also a pure Hebreo, because my parents are Hebreo, and my language and customs are also Hebreo. As regards also the law that God gave to Moses, I have-been-thorough in obeying it, because I am a Fariseo.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “For when I was born, when it was the eighth day I was circumcized. And I really am a pureblood Hebreo, a true descendant of Israel, of the clan of the descendants of Benjamin. Well in talking of obeying the laws of Moises, I am very much a Pariseo.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “On the eighth day after I was born, I was marked with the circumcision. Because I am a Jew. My ancestor was Benjamin. I was a Jew by birth, and my language is that of Hebrew. That which I explained about the law which the Jews follow is the belief which the Pharisees have.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

law

The Greek that is translated in English as “Law” or “law” is translated in Mairasi as oro nasinggiei or “prohibited things” (source: Enggavoter 2004) and in Noongar with a capitalized form of the term for “words” (Warrinya) (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang).

In Yucateco the phrase that is used for “law” is “ordered-word” (for “commandment,” it is “spoken-word”) (source: Nida 1947, p. 198) and in Central Tarahumara it is “writing-command.” (wsource: Waterhouse / Parrott in Notes on Translation October 1967, p. 1ff.)
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Translation commentary on Philippians 3:5

Paul now gives a list of qualifications which make him truly a Jew. I was circumcised when I was a week old (literally, “as to the circumcision, on the eighth day”). This is in accordance with the provision of the Law (Gen 17.9-14; Lev 12.3) and indicates that he was from a family which was meticulous in its fulfillment of all prescribed duties. He was not a proselyte, a convert whose circumcision occurred after his conversion as an adult. In Jewish reckoning the day of one’s birth was counted as a full day; thus when I was a week old means “seven days after my birth.”

In languages in which the passive expression I was circumcised cannot be employed, it is often possible to use an indefinite third person plural subject, for example, “they circumcised me.” In some languages it is possible to translate circumcised in this kind of context as “cut off the foreskin.” If such vocabulary is regarded as vulgar or in bad taste, it may be better to say “made a cut upon me.” In some languages translators simply borrow an expression meaning “cut around” without indicating specifically what part of the body is involved. A precise explanation can be given in a glossary, thus avoiding in the text terms which might be offensive, especially in the public reading of the Scriptures.

I am an Israelite by birth (literally, “out of the race of Israel”) indicates that Paul possessed by birth all the privileges of the chosen people. Israel is the covenant name of the people of God (Rom 9.4; 11.1; 2 Cor 11.22). I am an Israelite by birth may be expressed as “I have been an Israelite from the time I was born,” but it would be more natural in many languages to say “both my parents were Israelites.”

Paul claims adherence to the tribe of Benjamin, a tribe regarded with particular esteem (Judges 5.14; Hos 5.8). The Benjamites had given the nation its first lawful king, whose name was Saul, the same as the apostle’s original Hebrew name. Except for David’s own tribe of Judah, the tribe of Benjamin alone remained loyal to the house of David after the disruption of the monarchy (1 Kgs 12.21). It also had the unique privilege of having within its borders the Holy City of Jerusalem and the Temple (Judges 1.21). Although of the tribe of Benjamin is a reference specifically to Paul, in many languages it would be more natural to speak of the parents of Paul as belonging to the tribe of Benjamin. This would assure Paul’s membership in the same tribe.

A pure-blooded Hebrew is literally “a Hebrew of Hebrews” (Jerusalem Bible “a Hebrew born of Hebrew parents”). There was no heathen blood in him. In the Old Testament the word “Hebrew” is a distinctive national term; while in the New Testament it usually designates the Jew who retained his national language and way of life, in contrast to the “Hellenist,” a Jew who generally spoke Greek and conformed to Gentile customs and cultures (Acts 6.1; 22.2). Thus the “Hebrew” regarded himself as belonging to the elite of his race. A pure-blooded Hebrew can be best expressed in some languages as “my forefathers were all Hebrews,” or “my lineage has always been Hebrew.”

Thus far Paul has listed his inherited privileges. Now he proceeds to mention his personal attainments.

He says, literally, “with reference to the Law, a Pharisee,” The Pharisees were the strictest sect in Judaism, taking upon themselves the sacred duty of keeping and defending both the Mosaic Law and the tradition of the fathers. Paul’s statement can be rendered more explicitly as far as keeping the Jewish Law is concerned, I was a Pharisee. Notice that, instead of the more restricted term “Mosaic Law,” Good News Translation has Jewish Law (so also Barclay). This term is more inclusive, since it covers the twofold duties of keeping the Mosaic Law and the interpretive traditions of the scribes. In saying I was a Pharisee, Paul claims faithfulness and sincerity in fulfilling the duties prescribed in the Jewish Law. For him Pharisee is not a name for reproach, but a title of honor (Acts 23.6; 26.5).

As far as keeping the Jewish Law is concerned may be expressed as “in my keeping the Jewish Law,” Or one can shift the relation between the clauses in the final sentence and say “I kept the Jewish Law as a Pharisee.” In a number of languages, however, one cannot speak of “keeping the Law” except in the sense of preserving a book of the Law in one’s house. What is meant here, of course, is that Paul faithfully obeyed all the commandments in the Law. Therefore one may translate as “I did everything that the Jewish Law said I should do.” The phrase the Jewish Law may be translated as “the Law which the Jews followed,” or “the laws which the Jews obeyed,” or “… were supposed to obey.”

Quoted with permission from Luo, I-Jin. and Nida, Eugene A. A Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Philippians. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1977. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .