wine

The Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek that are translated as “wine” in English is translated into Pass Valley Yali as “grape juice pressed long ago (= fermented)” or “strong water” (source: Daud Soesilo). In Guhu-Samane it is also translated as “strong water” (source: Ernest L. Richert in The Bible Translator 1965, p. 198ff. ), in Noongar as “liquor” (verbatim: “strong water”) (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang), in Hausa as ruwan inabi or “water of grapes” (with no indication whether it’s alcoholic or not — source: Mark A. Gaddis), or in Papantla Totonac and Coyutla Totonac as “a drink like Pulque” (for “Pulque,” see here ) (source: Jacob Loewen in The Bible Translator 1971, p. 169ff. ).

In Swahili, Bible translations try to avoid local words for alcoholic drinks, because “drinking of any alcohol at all was one of the sins most denounced by early missionaries. Hence translators are uncomfortable by the occurrences of wine in the Bible. Some of the established churches which use wine prefer to see church wine as holy, and would not refer to it by the local names used for alcoholic drinks. Instead church wine is often referred to by terms borrowed from other languages, divai (from German, der Wein) or vini/mvinyo (from ltalian/Latin vino/vinum). Several translations done by Protestants have adapted the Swahili divai for ‘wine,’ while those done by Catholics use vini or mvinyo.” (Source: Rachel Konyoro in The Bible Translator 1985, p. 221ff. )

The Swahili divai was in turn borrowed by Sabaot and was turned into tifaayiik and is used as such in the Bible. Kupsabiny, on the other hand, borrowed mvinyo from Swahili and turned it into Finyonik. (Source: Iver Larsen)

In Nyamwezi, two terms are used. Malwa ga muzabibu is a kind of alcohol that people specifically use to get drunk (such as in Genesis 9:21) and ki’neneko is used for a wine made from grapes (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext).

In some Hindi translations (such as the Common Language version, publ. 2015 ), one term (dākharasa दाखरस — grape juice) is used when that particular drink is in the focus (such as in John 2) and another term (madirā मदिरा — “alcohol” or “liquor”) when drunkenness is in the focus (such as in Eph. 5:18).

In Mandarin Chinese, the generic term jiǔ (酒) or “alcohol(ic drink)” is typically used. Exceptions are Leviticus 10:9, Numbers 6:3, Deuteronomy 29:6, Judges 13:4 et al., 1 Samuel 1:15, and Luke 1:15 where a differentiation between weak and strong alcohol is needed. The Mandarin Chinese Union Version (2010) translates that as qīngjiǔ lièjiǔ (清酒烈酒) and dànjiǔ lièjiǔ (淡酒烈酒), both in the form of a Chinese proverb and meaning “light alcohol and strong drink.” (Source: Zetzsche)

Click or tap here to see a short video clip about wine in biblical times (source: Bible Lands 2012)

See also proceeds from the vine / anything that comes from the grapevine and wine (Gen 27:28).

grain

The Greek and Hebrew that is translated in English as “grain” (or: “corn”) is translated in Kui as “(unthreshed) rice.” Helen Evans (in The Bible Translator 1954, p. 40ff. ) explains: “Padddy [unthreshed rice] is the main crop of the country and rice the staple diet of the people, besides which [grain] is unknown and there is no word for it, and it seemed to us that paddy and rice in the mind of the Kui people stood for all that corn meant to the Jews.” “Paddy” is also the translation in Pa’o Karen (source: Gordon Luce in The Bible Translator 1950, p. 153f. ).

Other translations include: “wheat” (Teutila Cuicatec), “corn” (Lalana Chinantec), “things to eat” (Morelos Nahuatl), “grass corn” (wheat) (Chichimeca-Jonaz) (source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.), or ntimumma lujia / “seeds for food” (Lokạạ — “since Lokạạ does not have specific terms for maize and rice that can be described as grains”) (source: J.A. Naudé, C.L. Miller Naudé, J.O. Obono in Acta Theologica 43/2, 2023, p. 129ff. )

Translation commentary on Hosea 7:14

The Hebrew waw conjunction (literally “And” [King James Version]) may be omitted (so Revised Standard Version, Good News Translation).

They do not cry to me from the heart: Cry to me refers to prayer. From the heart involves one’s innermost being, with nothing hidden, so Good News Translation says “They have not prayed to me sincerely.” The Hebrew preposition for from can also be translated “with,” so another possible model is “They do not pray to me in full allegiance.” Mays contends that the heart represents the mind here, and that Israel showed its stupidity by engaging in pagan forms of worship. Good News Translation‘s interpretation of this line is commendable in the context of the “lies” of the previous verse.

But they wail upon their beds: The context shows that the verb wail is used in the sense of religious worship, and it contrasts with proper prayer of the first line. It is not clear which beds are in focus here. Given the context, it is most likely a type of couch used for pagan rituals (compare Isa 57.7). Upon their beds may therefore imply that they are engaging in pagan fertility rites, forms of religious prostitution, in order to encourage their crops to grow (see comments on 1.2). Good News Translation‘s “they throw themselves down and wail as the heathen do” shows that this was a heathen custom but misses the implied meaning of engaging in religious prostitution. Some think it is possible that a regular form of praying while on one’s bed at home is implied (see Psa 4.4; 149.5), but the context of the third line makes this highly unlikely.

For grain and wine they gash themselves: This line is a difficult one to handle. There are two valid interpretations:

1. Revised Standard Version understands it to continue with the subject of pagan worship by emending the Hebrew verb to read gash. Baal worshipers apparently gashed themselves to reinforce important petitions (see 1 Kgs 18.28). Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch says “and they make gashes on themselves so that I will hear their prayers for grain and wine,” and Bible en français courant has “they gash their bodies in the hope of obtaining better crops and better grape harvests.” Good News Translation follows this interpretation quite clearly: “When they pray for grain and wine, they gash themselves like pagans.” Contemporary English Version is even more explicit: “and slashed themselves in the hope that Baal will bless their crops.” Hebrew Old Testament Text Project favors this interpretation, but as a {C} decision, which means that there is some serious doubt.

2. Instead of gash, the Hebrew text has a verb meaning “dwell” or “sojourn.” More recent studies show that the northern Israelite use of this verb often implies dwelling with a woman and including the idea of religious prostitution. So here the prophet is talking about the Israelites committing prostitution in order to encourage the false gods to give them crops of grain and wine. A possible model that follows this interpretation is “for grain and wine they commit [religious] adultery.” This fits with the statement about beds in the previous line.

Grain crops were mostly wheat and barley, and wine came from their grape vines (see comments on 2.8).

They rebel against me repeats the idea expressed in 7.13. To worship another god or to worship Yahweh in a pagan fashion was rebellion. Good News Translation‘s “What rebels they are!” fails to indicate whom they are rebelling against, although this may be understood from the context.

Translation models for this verse are:

• They do not pray to me with full commitment,
but are howling as pagans on their couches.
They cut themselves to beg their gods for grain and wine,
and they turn against me.

• They do not call on me sincerely,
but they wail on their beds,
prostituting themselves for grain and wine,
thus turning against me.

Quoted with permission from Dorn, Louis & van Steenbergen, Gerrit. A Handbook on Hosea. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2020. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .